Ryotwari & Mahalwari Systems
Notes
The British used three main systems of land revenue. The Permanent Settlement (Cornwallis, 1793, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa) fixed revenue permanently with zamindars. The Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems were introduced later to raise higher and revisable revenue.
Ryotwari System
- Introduced by Captain Alexander Read in the Baramahal (Salem) region in 1792 and extended by Thomas Munro, Governor of Madras (1820-27), to the Madras Presidency. Introduced in Bombay by Elphinstone (1825), with the Wingate-Goldsmid survey (1835-47).
- Settlement made directly with the ryot (cultivator), who was treated as the owner of land and paid revenue directly to the State. He could not be evicted as long as he paid.
- Revenue was revised periodically (every 20-30 years). Assessment was very high, often one-third to one-half of the produce.
- Covered about 51% of British India: Madras, Bombay, parts of Assam and Coorg.
- Effects: heavy burden, rigid collection even during crop failure, peasants fell into the hands of moneylenders, land became a commodity. It led to the Deccan Riots (1875) and the Deccan Agriculturists' Relief Act (1879). The cotton boom during the American Civil War (1861-65) was followed by a crash.
Mahalwari System
- Planned by Holt Mackenzie (1819 minute) and put into effect by Regulation VII of 1822 in the North-Western Provinces (Agra and Awadh). Regulation IX of 1833 (Robert Mertins Bird) and James Thomason (Lieutenant-Governor, 1843-53) refined it.
- Settlement was made with the village community (mahal); the village headmen (lambardars) were responsible for collecting revenue. Landowners were jointly responsible.
- Revenue was revised every 20-30 years; at first about two-thirds of the rental, later reduced to about 50% (Saharanpur Rules, 1855).
- Covered about 30% of British India: the North-Western Provinces, Punjab, parts of Central Provinces. The Malguzari system was similar in the Central Provinces.
- Effects: high revenue and collective liability, moneylender dominance, and growth of landlessness.
Basis | Permanent Settlement | Ryotwari | Mahalwari |
|---|---|---|---|
Year | 1793 | 1792 (Baramahal), 1820 (Madras) | 1822 |
Architects | Cornwallis | Read, Munro | Holt Mackenzie, Bird, Thomason |
Settlement with | Zamindar | Individual ryot | Village (mahal) |
Revenue | Fixed forever | Revised periodically | Revised periodically |
Area | ~19% | ~51% | ~30% |
Key Points
- Ryotwari: Read and Munro; direct settlement with the cultivator; Madras and Bombay.
- Mahalwari: Holt Mackenzie; Regulation VII of 1822; village community; North-Western Provinces and Punjab.
- Both were periodically revised; the revenue demand was very high.
- Result: indebtedness, moneylenders, Deccan Riots (1875).
- Coverage: Permanent 19%, Ryotwari 51%, Mahalwari 30%.
MCQs
Q1. The Ryotwari system was first introduced by: (a) Cornwallis (b) Alexander Read and Thomas Munro (c) Holt Mackenzie (d) Wellesley Ans: (b). First in the Baramahal in 1792.
Q2. The Mahalwari system was planned by: (a) Holt Mackenzie (b) Thomas Munro (c) Cornwallis (d) Dalhousie Ans: (a). Regulation VII of 1822.
Q3. The Ryotwari system covered approximately what share of British India? (a) 19% (b) 30% (c) 51% (d) 75% Ans: (c).